Chapter 3: Transportation.

History is the record of an encounter between character and circumstances. Donald Creighton

Mary began her journey to Australia in November 1825. London was sullen, wet, and cold. That month vicious gales wreaked havoc in London's South. In this stormy weather, Mary and ninety-nine women from prisons in the southern counties went to board the convict ship Providence II. The ship lay at the Downs off the coast of Kent near the Thames Estuary. Here ships sheltered from storms and loaded cargo prepared for journeys beyond. Convict ships were vessels hired by the Government to carry convicts to Australia or other prison colonies. The Royal Navy was responsible for prisoners' health and welfare. It assigned Naval Surgeons to each convict an emigrant ship. Matthew Burnside is appointed Surgeon for the Providence.

There is no record of the method of Mary and her companion's transfer from prison to ship. They could have sailed down the Thames estuary to the Downs. However, it would have been an uncomfortable journey, wearing chains and thin clothing. Alternatively, the women would arrive exhausted after a long trip in an enclosed black, windowless wagon. Trapped in a suffocating closeness as they bumped along poorly made roads. Many were already ill from scurvy and malnutrition.

Boarding any ship is inherently dangerous. Boarding in chains would make this doubly so. Add a bag of possessions and children, and it would be terrifying. Below dark waters slap against the hull. To come alongside in a longboat as both ship and boat rose and fell with the bucking waves. A rope ladder, wet and cold, bashing in an offensive rhythm against the solid oak of the vessel. There is clanging and noise and confusion. Women cry, children scream, and men curse and shove the women up. Imagine holding on for dear life, poked and prodded to keep climbing, up, up. Perhaps your children are hauled up by seaman, or your babe in a sling, wailing, in tune with your fear. Orders are lashing out, women weeping, gulls screeching, anxiety and bile tearing at your throat. All this before the jeers of a lecherous crew. For some, overcome with terror, they leap into the sea. Many are rescued and dragged back to face the taunts of their rescuers. To choose death was to cheat the just punishment handed down by the court. Deeply depressed, ill and fearful, these poor souls were leaving children and parents behind. Perhaps the pain was too great to bear.

Now on deck, the women stand, unsteady on the moving deck. One by one, they wait for the chains to fall and the process of ship prisoners to begin. Mrs Fry's agent would report any treatment she thought to be unreasonably harsh and demeaning. On visiting the ship Mary Ann, one representative, wrote that the women "arriving from Lancaster Castle arriving not only handcuffed but wearing heavy leg irons on their legs which caused considerable swelling and inflammation".

Providence 2

Built-in Lynne, India, in 1812, the Providence was 380 tons sailing ship. The ship departed the Downs on December 24, 1825, with 99 convicts and few free passengers. On the way to Van Diemen's Land, the ship called into Santa Cruz in Tenerife on January 18. Tenerife lay in the Canary Islands. In fair weather, prisoners could spend all day on deck and enjoy fresh breezes and sunlight. The sight of the Spanish Islands would have been one of great excitement for the prisoners. These islands would also be their last sight of land before Van Diemen's Land's long journey. One hundred and forty-three days after leaving the Downs, they arrived in Van Diemen's Land on May 16 1826.

The ship's Master or Captain was John Wauchope, responsible for the cargo of iron, the crew, and the free passengers. As for the prisoners, he was under instructions to cooperate with the surgeon superintendent Matthew Burnside who bore responsibility for their welfare.

There was a small group of free passengers. Quartermaster Johnson, his wife, their child Louisa, and a female servant. Four women, who were the wives of prisoners in the colony and their eleven children. One of the free passengers was Miss Crawford, a young lady of Thespian fame from the Drury Lane Theatre, who planned to introduce some of the Colonists' latest London fashions.

The Government assisted the four prisoner wives on board to be with their husbands. Male convicts who could prove they could support their family and produce testimonials of exemplary conduct could petition the Government for their families to join them.

Elizabeth Smith (57), was an assisted wife, died of fever. Her two daughters, Charlotte (22) and Elizabeth (19), survived the same illness. In his notes, the surgeon said that Elizabeth Snr was worried about her two daughters, who were ill, and she was depressed about their future. However, both daughters recovered to arrive in Hobart Town, motherless.

The Convict Women

One hundred women boarded the Providence. There were twenty-four with life sentences, twenty-six to serve 14 years and 50 to serve seven years.

Unknown perhaps to the lifers, a life sentence in the Colonies did not mean in prison forever. On the contrary, good behaviour could reduce penalties, and a life tariff could receive a conditional pardon.

They were exiled from England for life but not incarcerated forever.

The Ladies' Prison Visiting Association visited each ship before departure. It gave the women small gifts of sewing kits and wool and bibles. The aim was to encourage women to be industrious on the journey. Literacy lessons were encouraged. It was not uncommon for people to be able to read but not write. The bibles were given as incentives to read and lead good redeemable lives. Each woman was issued with a standard prison uniform to wear on the trip. They could bring additional personal items that were stored in a box and stored below. Mary now had a jacket, a rough serge dress, a coarse flannel petticoat, a pair of stockings, a linen cap, a handkerchief (for her menstrual cycle), an apron, and a pair of shoes. These were her clothes to wash and wear for the next 143 days.

On embarkation, each woman was medically examined to "ascertain her fitness to survive the voyage, allotted to a mess of six to eight women, and given a berth, bedding and a bag" for personal items, such as soap. Any money was recorded and kept by the surgeon. Children accompanying their mothers underwent a similar regime and were given a uniform.

Mary was now fed, clothed, and facing a daunting future. Many arriving from prison had developed scurvy. Prison authorities believed that prisoners ought not to eat any better than the neediest workhouse person. Thus, a prison diet consisted of a monotonous diet of bread, cheese, gruel, and suet (the rendered fat from around the kidneys of cattle and sheep). Once onboard, their diet included the addition of "sherbet", a mixture of sugar and lime designed to combat scurvy.

While the regime on board was strict, it was a supposedly healthy environment, to the knowledge of the times. Food was plentiful, if not a bit monotonous. Prisoners regularly aired bedding and cleaned their space. Medical treatment was free, the air was fresh, and there was the opportunity for any last-minute visits from family. Sadly, there is no record of Mary receiving any visitors.

Once aboard the Providence, the women came under the jurisdiction of Surgeon Superintendent Matthew Burnside. He was responsible not only for the health of the prisoners but also in control of prison discipline. He sets the tone and regulates behaviour.

The Lower Deck

The prison quarters were on the lowest deck. Like most emigrant and prison ships of the period, the deck was divided into two tiers of sleeping berths on each side, four abreast. Each berth was 1.8m square with room for four to six convicts. Each bunk was about 4 feet long and 18 inches wide. Even for a small woman like Mary, the bed would be uncomfortable. They also had tables and chairs and a kettle for making tea in common areas. Two small water closets were available. However, these would have been unbearable in the heat and overwhelmed when sickness overcame the prisoners.

Figure 1 This is an Irish immigrant ship, 3rd class—similar conditions to female convict ships.

Unfortunately, the lowest deck of a vessel sits above the bilges. Previous voyages had added to the rancid mix of human waste, dead rats, and accumulated rubbish. The prevailing public health theory of "miasma" believed that bad smells and odours created illness. There was no understanding of germs and bacteria as the cause of infection. On the plus side, miasma theory dictated that a dwelling must be kept well ventilated and clean. The surgeon orders a daily flouring of chloride of lime or dousing with vinegar. The fine chloride dust sifts through clothing, bedding. A sharp film of dust stayed in the hair and irritated the lungs. Sadly, confidence in the miasma theory did little to stop diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, coughs, and fevers.

Figure 2: In this cross-section of the ship Defence, the deck above the bilges is where the convict women lived.

As the physical well-being of those on board was the ship's surgeon's responsibility, it was his duty to ensure the quarters are kept clean. Daily inspections and regular cleaning routines are regulated and expected to be followed. In keeping with Mrs Fry's recommendations, the women were divided into messes. Each group has a leader who collects rations and allots tasks within the group. Overseeing the groups is one appointed as "matron". She reports to the Surgeon. Various prisoners of good repute supervise cleaning, cooking and nursing duties. Prisoners clean the toilets with chloride of lime. The surgeon must ensure high standards of cleanliness, ventilation, and fumigation. His bonus at the end of the voyage depended on it.

Each mess group has a small kettle to make tea, something unique to female transports. However, it was not without danger. The surgeon writes in his notes, "Ann Edwards, aged 19; disease or hurt, her face and neck scalded by accident with a kettle of boiling water. Put on sick list, 8 December 1825. Discharged cured, 15 December 1825". Even though their daily sherbet was administered, scurvy persists. It was common when prisoners resisted consuming pease soup and other meals designed to provide enough vitamin C.

Confined below decks in lousy weather, the women and children have access to plenty of fresh air during calmer seas. With the fine weather, they could eat meals on the top deck in the fresh air. If the weather was foul, they scuttled below.

Meals were, on paper, 2/3 of that of a naval rating. It was not uncommon for some unscrupulous quartermasters and captains to withhold rations or substituted poorer quality foodstuffs to increase their profit margin. Mary would have eaten a daily menu, much like the following:

8 am

Breakfast, mainly gruel with sugar and butter in it.

Noon

Lunch Beef or Pork or plum pudding. Some potatoes with the meat. Pea soup was served about 4 times a week.

4 or 5 pm

Supper probably like breakfast.

Their diet was rich in fats and carbohydrates, with little vegetables or fruit. The diet, lacking vegetables contributed to some stomach problems and scurvy.

To avoid waste and drunkenness, all women are mustered on deck. Now under the keen eye of the surgeon, they consume their daily ration of wine or sherbet. The surgeon used the opportunity to check the well-being of his charges. Many suffered from scabies (the itch). If infested, a person’s bedding would be washed or cast overboard. She is then scrubbed, washed, and reclothed.

Women with children were kept busy with allocated tasks. For example, all women were expected to holy scrub the decks. To "holy scrub", the deck is scrubbed with stone and sand. Keeping the prison dry and clean was of utmost importance. Encouraged to stay topside as much as possible, the women could knit, sew, or attend rudimentary schooling. Prisoners who had some education provided some essential learning of letters to those willing to learn. Burnside read Sunday sermons, and all were to attend.

Days were regimented. The nights after the lockdown was free. Sailors or officers would open the hatch, and women could barter for better food or secure a "husband" for the journey. A sea husband gave a woman more protection. Rape by sailors was common on ships where officers turned a blind eye.

Keeping themselves clean was important. Every woman was to bathe once per week and change underclothing weekly. Freshwater was allocated for bathing once a week, though not all were willing to bathe that much. Women were not accustomed to taking baths and were more likely to sponge bathe, washing face, underarms, etc. The women rarely washed their hair, preferring to cover their heads with a bonnet or scarf. Originally from the Thames, the water was soon tainted. Drinking tea may have made the water more palatable.

It might, at first, appear that the voyage was a peaceful idyll. However, punishment for poor conduct or misdemeanours recorded in the Surgeons General Conduct report suggests a high degree of restlessness and rebellion. In the case of fifteen-year-old Julia Mullins, the surgeon wrote,

She is a notorious strumpet and a dangerous girl. The trouble which she gave me is immeasurable. Repeatedly I have been obliged to put her into irons and confined her in the Coal-Hold. Hard labour or solitary confinement ought to be assigned to her.

Julia had a hard life, often absconding and in solitary confinement. Three marriage proposals were denied. In July 1829, she bore a child Ann while at the George Town Factory. Another child to a John Robinson was born at the Factory in February 1833. She gave birth to two children and died as Julia Smith. She died of accidental suffocation in Elizabeth St, Hobart, aged 56 years. Her occupation is listed as a widow. However, there is no record of her having married.'

Ann Clancy was also given severe punishment and was given a poor character report. Burnside wrote

… she is truly notoriously bad; seldom is never without fighting by day or night with one or other of her fellow prisoners. Had her twice imprisoned in the Coal Hold with both legs in irons for threatening expressions and most disgusting language unbecoming womankind. In my opinion, I quite believe her to be capable of committing the worst of crimes.

Her Newgate goal report cited her as "[b]ad having been six times before in custody for Vagrancy and misconduct has been a loose idle and disorderly person."Poor Ann never committed any "worst of crimes". She was 27 years old when transported. Hers was a hard life as a prostitute and alcoholic. Assigned to several masters, she was incompetent, unable to complete the simplest of tasks. Ann could not perform her duties as a servant. Continually absconding, she is invariably found intoxicated and hiding in various brothels. Her alcoholism would seem to be the root cause of her behaviour.

Freed in 1832, her health continued to deteriorate. She was committed to the Norfolk hospital for the insane in 1846, labelled as "incapable and insane." She died in hospital, aged 73, in 1854. She did not benefit from the promise of a new beginning. A kinder world may have seen her as a distraught soul.

Shipboard punishments were highly prescriptive and regulated. The aim was to keep the female prisoners under control, and is the surgeon's major responsibility. Mary and a few others spent time in the Coal Hole.

The Coal Hole is dark, black, and filthy. Dust chokes the air, and lumps of coal dig into flesh. The diet is bread and water. Heavy chains rub and tear at arms and ankles. The ship in high seas rises and falls, each fall adding to her misery. It was punishment meant to subdue rather than rehabilitate.

The Surgeon, Matthew Burnside.

The ship's surgeon Matthew Burnside was born in Londonderry in 1785 and married his first wife, Selina Blanket, on March 8, 1823.

Burnside had a distinguished naval career, and this was his first convict ship. A Naval Surgeon since July 1813, serving with distinction as an assistant surgeon during the Napoleonic Wars. He was appointed surgeon on the Regulus in 1825, taking Irish families escaping the famine to Canada.

It was the responsibility of the ship's surgeon to keep a detailed diary of the journey. From 1815, the ship's Surgeon-Superintendent was appointed by the Admiralty and was responsible for the care, control, and discipline of convicts during the voyage. Admiralty regulations gave the surgeon instructions on what information is to be collected. For example, record each convict's country of birth, level of literacy, and crime in his own journal. In addition, each prisoner would be recorded in a central ledger named the Convict Conduct Register. This register followed a prisoner until freedom by servitude or Conditional Pardon, and this is separate from a detailed medical journal. He also kept a diary recording punishments and his opinion The Surgeon, Matthew Burnside.

The ship's surgeon Matthew Burnside was born in Londonderry in 1785 and married his first wife, Selina Blanket, on March 8, 1823.

Burnside had a distinguished naval career, and this was his first convict ship. A Naval Surgeon since July 1813, serving with distinction as an assistant surgeon during the Napoleonic Wars. He was appointed surgeon on the Regulus in 1825, taking Irish families escaping the famine to Canada.

It was the responsibility of the ship's surgeon to keep a detailed diary of the journey. From 1815, the ship's Surgeon-Superintendent was appointed by the Admiralty and was responsible for the care, control, and discipline of convicts during the voyage. Admiralty regulations gave the surgeon instructions on what information is to be collected. For example, record each convict's country of birth, level of literacy, and crime in his own journal. In addition, each prisoner woof each prisoner's character.

For all his experience, this voyage is Burnside's first female convict transport.

One of the prime duties of the ship's surgeon was to ensure there was no "mingling" between the ship's crew and the prisoners. Allowing the women to spend time in the open air made this an onerous duty to accomplish for the best of Superintendents. However, Burnside did not maintain control. The young Irishman of 24 years formed a relationship with an Irish colleen, Julia Mills, 17 years old.

Once he broke the rule, it was impossible to stop both crew and women from enjoying each other's company.

Reading the detailed journals of other surgeons, most Captains and Surgeons worked together to ensure the prisoners were well cared for. The Admiralty provided detailed instructions on the care and cleanliness of the prison quarters. A death on board would be investigated and reported on. Burnside, like others, would write his complaints in his diary regarding the sending of prisoners with severe illnesses being placed in his care.

Even the most dedicated surgeons, full of Christian zeal and propriety, the consensus was that keeping the women away from the sailors and under tight rein was nigh impossible. There was no military presence on female transportations; it was left to the Surgeon alone to dole out punishments. Women were penalised for a variety of breaches of discipline. Singing or talking during Sunday services, obscene language, fighting and stealing and prostitution with the crew. Punishments ranged from admonishment to bread and water in the coal hold. For the women, the worst punishment was having their heads shaved.

Figure 3: Matthew Burnsides Medical Journal and instruments of a Naval Surgeon

Deaths on board are recorded, as are those with chronic illnesses. Burnside protested that two women should never have embarked.

Catherine Sandyford, aged 37, Convict, sentenced to transportation for life; disease or hurt, diabetes mellitus. Put on sick list, 27 November 1825. Discharged cured on arrival at Van Diemen's Land [no date given]. The surgeon notes that he objected to both Mary Cooper and Catherine Sandyford being embarked because of the nature of their complaints.

Burnsides records the one convict death on the voyage was Mary Cooper. She dies at Graves End on December 13, 1825, before the ship leaves England. He writes Mary Cooper was a

… determined Drunkard and as I have been informed by many of the Convicts that came from Newgate with her has been known to drink Seven Quarts of Porter, and even more than this in the course of a day. In prison, its first attack was most likely of a Catarrhal modification originating from habitual irritation and repeated and neglected Inflammation.

The only other deaths on the voyage were one of the free passengers and two children, Louise, the daughter of free passengers and John, son of the convict, Mary Bayliss.

In his medical report, Burnside writes;

Louisa Johnson, aged 14 months; disease or hurt, symptoms of pneumonic inflammation, eyes inflamed, cough troublesome and peculiarly distressing and obstinate, chest appeared to be heavily loaded and breathing laborious. Put on the sick list a few days after the family had embarked [no date given]. Died 3 February 1826. The family moved from Chatham to Woolwich for embarkation while the child was convalescing from measles. The weather was unseasonably wet, raw and cold. Exposure to the cold is given as the cause of the illness. The lancet was not used because of the weakly constitution of the child; instead, leeches were used, followed by a blister.

Of the child, Baylis, he outlines his diagnosis and treatment plan. Horrific by today’s standards, his treatments were considered good practice for the times. Burnside was an excellent and attentive surgeon.

James Bayliss, aged 8 months; disease or hurt, an edematous, intumescence of the head accompanied with stupor and heaviness. Put on sick list, 14 December 1825. Died 8 January 1826. Treated with the mercurial process than with a lancet to drain fluid. The second use of the lancet was unsuccessful 'owing to the internal disorganisation'.

Bleeding was considered a prudent practice. While these treatments seem barbaric, they were deemed to be attentive and efficacious. Reading Burnsides medical report in its entirety, most patients recovered despite his treatments. Some of these treatments included using mercury in various forms, inducing vomiting, and applying blisters would have made the unwell feel even worse. As a surgeon, Burnside did show concern and care for these babies. He was mindful of recording the cause of Louise's death on a pre-existing condition.

While many women had a history of prostitution, only one case of venereal disease is treated.

Jane Brickhill, aged 22; disease or hurt, chancres about the labia and clitoris, continual pains of her legs, voice hoarse and swallowing difficult, the fauces considerably inflamed and ulcerated, countenance very sallow, appetite impaired. Put on sick list, December 4 1825. Discharged cured, January 10 1826. Had been removed from York Castle and embarked in a most deplorable state of health and was 8 or 10 days on board before the surgeon was made aware of her condition.

Burnside wrote Character reports on all his charges and mentions Mary Davis his record is not flattering. He says she is

"[m]uch given to theft. Gave me a great deal of trouble at first. Is artful. Was easily persuaded by a few onboard more known than herself, which gave rise to her punishment. Otherwise, I think her conduct would not have been amiss. Latterly she has behaved tolerably well. Confined her several times in irons and kept her in the Coal-Hold on bread and water."

His character reports are purely subjective and absolute. The women, most unable to read, could not challenge his comments.

After arrival at Hobart, complaints, by the free passengers, about Burnside surface. His shenanigans are soon brought to the attention of Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur, and an Enquiry into Burnside's conduct began.

Figure 4: Governor Darling's letter to the Admiralty regarding Burnsides conduct.

During the voyage, Burnside formed a relationship with the convict Julia Mills. Born in Ireland, Mills is seventeen-year-old. She was convicted of theft and was “on the Town” when she committed her crime.

The Quartermaster, Samuel Johnson and his wife had the misfortune to be in the cabin next to Burnsides. Apparently, the partition between them was not soundproof. Mrs Johnson was most distressed by the sounds of two or three women at any one time, carousing and drinking until late at night. By peering through a hole in the partition, Samuel gave salacious details of Julie, naked and in bed with Burnside. In addition, Mrs Johnson was upset with the constant sound of Mills and Burnside engaging in “criminal intercourse”.

When the Quartermaster challenged Burnside, the angry Doctor threatened to horsewhip him. Other “irregularities included women dressing as sailors and climbing into the sailors quarters at night”.

The report wholly discredits Burnside. He remained in the Navy for some time, on a half pension. But, sadly, he never regained his reputation. Leaving the Navy, he never practises medicine again. He died in debt and obscurity in 1869.

Captain Wauchope was also admonished and banned from shipping convicts. He died at sea off the coast of Norway in 1828.

The ship has landed in Hobart, a village with four hundred houses and a population of three thousand people, living on the edge of the world. As Burnsides career ends, Mary's new life begins. She will need to keep her wits about her and hone her survival skills, for the horrible voyage will soon seem like the easy part.

Figure 5: DISTANT VIEW OF HOBART TOWN, / Van Diemen's Land, from Blufhead. / London, Published 1825, by J. Souter